Engineering macrophage responses through 3D scaffold microarchitecture

Biomaterial implantation in living organisms triggers a physiological response known as foreign body reaction, leading to the recruitment of macrophages, that can polarize either into a pro-inflammatory (M1) or an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype. Currently, there is growing interest in tailoring the physical properties of tissues and biomaterials to promote efficient tissue regeneration. Tridimensionality can profoundly influence macrophage behaviour; however, there is no clear consensus on the underlying mechanisms. 3D microstructures may play a crucial role in modulating immune cells, promoting anti-inflammatory responses, and supporting effective tissue repair and regeneration. In this study, we used two-photon polymerization to fabricate 3D scaffolds with large pores, measuring 50x50x20 μm³, and small pores, measuring 15x15x15 μm ³ . Both microstructures effectively influenced macrophage cytoskeletal organization and cellular metabolic activity. Notably, they were not sufficient to induce spontaneous macrophage polarization, indicating that they are intrinsically immunologically inert. When combined with chemical stimulation, as typically occurs in vivo , they elicited distinct responses. Specifically, as evidenced by the slight upregulation of the Arg1 marker, large pore sizes promoted an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Conversely, iNOS expression measurements indicated that small pores, which impose spatial constraints on macrophages, favoured a massive pro-inflammatory state. Our results demonstrate that 3D microstructures are versatile tools for multiple applications. Their precisely tunable architecture enables fine control over macrophage behaviour and immunomodulation, opening new avenues both for tissue engineering, by preventing fibrosis and promoting anti-inflammatory and pro-regenerative responses in vivo , and for the development of in vitro platforms to model inflamed tissues for screening anti-inflammatory drugs.