No paternal effects in a sperm-dependent, naturally clonal fish

Paternal effects, i.e., effects of males on the phenotypes of their offspring that are not caused by the integration of male genetic material, are increasingly recognized as a potentially significant source of phenotypic variation across taxa - even in the absence of paternal care. Gynogenetic systems, which rely on sperm to trigger embryogenesis without incorporating male genetic material, provide a powerful way to experimentally isolate potential paternal effects from effects caused by the integration of male genetic material; up to now, however, paternal effects remain largely unexplored in these systems. Here, we test for paternal effects in the gynogenetic Amazon molly ( Poecilia formosa ): a naturally clonal, all-female species with no parental care. Using a highly controlled breeding experiment involving 59 Atlantic molly males ( P. mexicana ) and 57 Amazon molly females, we generated 169 broods and 2,966 offspring. While males were drawn from a naturally variable stock population, females – next to being genetically identical – were highly standardized for age, size, descent, and developmental experience. We asked whether male identity or body size predicted offspring size – a key offspring phenotypic trait. We also asked whether male identity or body size predicted brood size. While we found substantial variation in both offspring size and brood size, we found no evidence for paternal effects on either trait. Next to providing an experimental test for paternal effects in a gynogenetic system, our results also strengthen the Amazon molly’s status as a model species for studying – in a highly controlled fashion – the developmental emergence of phenotypic variation.