Metagenomic analysis of antimicrobial resistance, virulence, and mobile genetic elements in the gut microbiota of Caprinae species

The gut microbiota of livestock serves as a reservoir for antimicrobial resistance (AMR), yet Caprinae species remain understudied in this context. In this comprehensive metagenomic study, we analyzed 779 gut samples from Caprinae animals and reconstructed 17,023 high-quality metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs). From these, we identified 4,685 antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) and 5,401 virulence factor genes (VFGs). Escherichia coli emerged as a major host carrying high burdens of both ARGs and VFGs. Strong positive correlations between ARGs, VFGs, and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) suggest potential co-selection and genetic linkage. Although MGEs were found in only 1.45% of MAGs, 23 ARGs were physically co-located with MGEs, indicating mobility potential. Additionally, three ARGs were embedded within viral genomes, two of which were associated with Myoviridae phages and one with an unclassified viral source, implicating phages in AMR dissemination. Comparative analyses revealed 292 ARG types shared between Caprinae and the human gut microbiota, including 20 genes representing six clinically critical resistance types: tetX1 , tetX4 , tmexD3 , vanD , vanR , and vanS —conferring resistance to tigecycline, vancomycin, and polymyxins. These findings expand our understanding of the resistome and virulome in Caprinae animals and highlight potential zoonotic transmission pathways, underscoring the need for targeted AMR surveillance and mitigation strategies.