Chaperone saturation mediates translation and protein folding efficiency

Whether the emergence of a nascent protein from the ribosome and the formation of structural elements are synchronized has been a longstanding question (Chaney and Clark, 2015; Deane and Saunders, 2011; Levinthal, 1968; Marin, 2008; Sauna and Kimchi-Sarfaty, 2011; Spencer and Barral, 2012; Tsai et al., 2008; Zhang and Ignatova, 2011). Paradoxically, kinetically efficient translation can induce mis-folding and aggregation despite the presence of molecular chaperones (Siller et al., 2010; Spencer et al., 2012), which in Escherichia coli are induced by unfolded protein (Parsell and Sauer, 1989) via σ ³² (Craig and Gross, 1991). The molecular mechanisms mediating translation efficiency and protein folding efficiency remain poorly understood. Using ribosome profiling (Ingolia et al., 2009) and protein quantitation, we show that synonymous changes to Firefly Luciferase ( Luc ) mRNA have a direct effect on its translation efficiency. These changes alone cause up to a 70-fold difference in Luc protein levels. However, increased Luc protein is met with at most a ∼2-fold increase in chaperone levels, revealing that the σ ³² transcriptional response has saturable properties. This response is found to be poised near its midpoint (where it is most sensitive to perturbation) when Luc mRNA has an intermediate translation efficiency. These results suggest not only that chaperone saturation limits the ability of cells to maintain protein folding homeostasis when challenged with highly efficient translation, but that translation efficiency and protein folding efficiency evolved for mutual sensitivity.