Convergent evolution of skipper wings assessed through anti-predator defences, flight proxies and geographical distribution

1. Phenotypic evolution is shaped by phylogenetic, ecological and biomechanical constraints. Butterfly wings offer an ideal system to explore these constraints as their evolution is strongly influenced by natural and sexual selection affecting colour patterns and wing shape in relation to visual signalling and flight performance.

2. We focus on Eudamina skippers, butterflies with large-scale phenotypic convergences involving wing shape and colour pattern. Using a comprehensive morphometric dataset encompassing 176 species, we assess their morphological evolution in a phylogenetic framework.

3. We show that hindwing tails and dorsal iridescence, proposed to signal high escape ability, have repeatedly evolved in tropical species. Hindwing tails are associated with intermediate body size, low wing loading and a forewing shape that facilitates manoeuvrability; iridescence is more common in large species with significantly high wing loading and aspect ratio, indicating high flight speed and manoeuvrability.

4. The evolution of all tested morphometric traits is best described by Ornstein-Uhlenbeck models, indicating stabilising selection around fitness optima in Eudamina. Models testing for random drift or early burst dynamics were rejected in all cases.

5. We reveal a clear co-evolution between the fore- and hindwing shapes, despite both wings having different functional constraints. Hindwing tails have a significant recurrent effect on forewing shape in lineages evolving them independently, suggesting the existence of evolutionary trade-offs between flight performance and antipredator defences.

6. Our study shows that the convergent morphologies across Eudamina have likely arisen not by neutral evolution but by ecological selection influenced by biomechanical constraints.