Genetic and Epigenetic Foundations of Childhood Internalizing and Externalizing Problems and their Co-occurrence

Childhood behavioural problems pose long-term mental health risks, yet the biological basis of co-occurring internalizing and externalizing symptoms remains unclear. In a cohort of 40,212 children, we integrated genome-wide association studies (GWAS), polygenic scores (PGS), and DNA methylation profiling (EWAS) to examine the genetic and epigenetic underpinnings of internalizing, externalizing, and co-occurring problems. All outcomes showed modest SNP-based heritability (h² = 0.02–0.19, FDR < 0.05). GWAS identified a significant locus for co-occurring problems at age five (rs73161798, p = 3.26 × 10⁻⁸), near USP12 , a gene implicated in neuroplasticity and risk-taking. PGS for co-occurring symptoms was associated with higher neuroticism and lower cognitive ability. DNA methylation explained substantial variance in co-occurring problems at ages three (R² = 0.19) and five (R² = 0.62), but not in single-domain symptoms. EWAS revealed 101 significant sites (p < 10⁻⁷) linked to neurodevelopmental, immune, and metabolic pathways. These findings suggest that co-occurring behavioural problems have a distinct, age-sensitive biological architecture.