Human Applications of Transcranial Temporal Interference Stimulation: A Systematic Review

  1. Ilya Demchenko
  2. Ishaan Tailor
  3. Sina Chegini
  4. Haochen Yu
  5. Fatemeh Gholamali Nezhad
  6. Alice Rueda
  7. Anne Kever
  8. Sridhar Krishnan
  9. Abhishek Datta
  10. Jed A. Meltzer
  11. Simon J. Graham
  12. Tom A. Schweizer
  13. Sumientra Rampersad
  14. Edward S. Boyden
  15. Ines R. Violante
  16. Robert Chen
  17. Andres M. Lozano
  18. Venkat Bhat
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Abstract

Background

Many neurological and psychiatric disorders involve dysregulation of subcortical structures. Transcranial temporal interference stimulation (tTIS) is a novel, non-invasive method developed to selectively modulate these regions and associated neural circuits.

Methods

A systematic review was conducted to evaluate human applications of tTIS (PROSPERO ID: CRD42024559678). MEDLINE, Embase, APA PsycINFO, CENTRAL, ClinicalTrials.gov , and WHO ICTRP were searched up to December 12, 2024. Studies involving human applications of tTIS were eligible. Methodological quality was appraised using the NIH and modified Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine tools.

Results

Forty-eight records were reviewed (20 published studies, 28 ongoing trials). Of published studies, 16 single-session and 4 multi-session studies assessed safety, mechanistic outcomes, or therapeutic effects of tTIS in 820 participants. Stimulation was most commonly delivered at beta (20 Hz) or gamma (30–130 Hz) envelope frequencies. Neuroimaging studies support target engagement of the motor cortex, basal ganglia, and hippocampus in humans, particularly when stimulation is paired with behavioural tasks. Preliminary clinical findings in small samples demonstrated acute symptom improvements in bradykinesia and tremor within 60 minutes following a single tTIS session in Parkinson’s disease and essential tremor. Reported adverse events across studies were mild (e.g., tingling, itching). Emerging trials increasingly utilize multi-session protocols (2–40 sessions) and are extending tTIS to patients with neurological and psychiatric disorders, particularly epilepsy and depression.

Conclusions

Phase 1 studies demonstrate that tTIS is safe, well-tolerated, and can engage deep brain targets in humans. Well-controlled Phase 2 trials are needed to assess its therapeutic potential in patient populations.

Highlights

  • tTIS engages the motor cortex, basal ganglia, and hippocampus across human studies

  • 20 studies show tTIS is safe and well-tolerated in healthy and clinical cohorts

  • One tTIS session improves bradykinesia and tremor in Parkinsonism within 1 hour

  • Multi-session trials now test tTIS in epilepsy, depression, and other disorders

  • Robust Phase 2 trials are needed to study the efficacy of tTIS in patient populations

Article activity feed

  1. Version published to 10.1101/2025.05.16.25327804v3 on medRxiv
  2. Version published to 10.1101/2025.05.16.25327804v2 on medRxiv
  3. Version published to 10.1101/2025.05.16.25327804v1 on medRxiv