Heterochronic transcription factor expression drives cone-dominant retina development in 13-lined ground squirrels

Evolutionary adaptation to diurnal vision in ground squirrels has led to the development of a cone-dominant retina, in stark contrast to the rod-dominant retinas of most mammals. The molecular mechanisms driving this shift remain largely unexplored. Here, we perform single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-Seq) and chromatin accessibility profiling (scATAC-Seq) across developmental retinal neurogenesis in the 13-lined ground squirrel (13LGS) to uncover the regulatory basis of this adaptation. We find that 13LGS cone photoreceptors arise not only from early-stage neurogenic progenitors, as seen in rod-dominant species like mice, but also from late-stage neurogenic progenitors. This extended period of cone generation is driven by a heterochronic shift in transcription factor expression, with cone-promoting factors such as Onecut2 , Pou2f1 , and Zic3 remaining active in late-stage progenitors, and factors that promote cone differentiation such as Thrb , Rxrg , and Mef2c expressed precociously in late-stage neurogenic progenitors. Functional analyses reveal that Zic3 and Mef2c are sufficient to promote cone photoreceptor and repress rod specification, and act through species-specific regulatory elements that drive their expression in late-stage progenitors. These results demonstrate that evolutionary modifications to gene regulatory networks underlie the development of cone-dominant retinas and provide insight into mechanisms of sensory adaptation and potential strategies for cone photoreceptor regeneration in vision disorders.