Two Spore Types in a Marine Parasite of Dinoflagellates

Marine alveolates (MALVs) are diverse, primarily parasitic micro-eukaryotes that significantly impact marine ecosystems. The life cycles of most MALVs remain elusive and the role of sexual reproduction in these organisms is a key question that may determine their ecological success. In this study we focus on a widespread dinoflagellate parasite of bloom-forming dinoflagellates, Amoebophrya .

After infection, we identified two distinct spores, differing in size, ultrastructure, swimming behavior, lifespan, gene expression, and metabolite composition. The smaller spores serve as infectious propagules, equipped with an apical complex for host invasion. They exhibit a distinct, shorter, and straighter swimming pattern, likely optimized for an extended lifespan while enhancing dispersion and chance for host encounters. Transcriptomic analysis reveals that these smaller spores are primed for efficient protein synthesis upon initiating a new infection.

Conversely, the larger spores cannot infect new hosts and are characterized by the expression of meiotic genes, underscoring their sexual nature. They have a shorter lifespan, exhibit more tortuous movement, along display condensed chromosomes, signaling readiness for mating. Interestingly, infected hosts already express meiotic genes, and a single infected host only produces progeny of the same spore type, suggesting that cell fate is determined prior to spore release.

Our study provides one of the first formal demonstrations of a sexually specialized cell in MALVs. Isolating compatible strains for cross-breeding and understanding how environmental conditions favor each reproductive route are the next key questions for elucidating the ecological success of MALVs in marine waters.

Significance Statement

Marine alveolates (MALVs) are ecologically significant parasites that impact carbon cycling, causing major disease outbreaks affecting fisheries and aquaculture, and influencing the dynamics of harmful algal blooms. Despite their diversity and wide host range, much of our knowledge comes from environmental DNA, leaving important aspects of their biology, such as their life cycles, largely unknown. This study provides the first evidence of sexual reproduction in MALVs, linking spore polymorphism to infective or sexual routes. This discovery is crucial as sexual reproduction increases genetic diversity and adaptability, aiding MALVs’ resilience in changing environments. Understanding MALVs’ reproductive strategies deepens our insight into their ecological roles and their broader impact on marine ecosystems.