Metabolic heterogeneity coupled with a resistance gene generates antibiotic heteroresistance

Heteroresistance is a form of antibiotic resistance in which a phenotypically unstable subpopulation of resistant cells exists within a majority population of susceptible cells. The impact of the extracellular environment on mechanisms of heteroresistance is unclear. Studying fosfomycin heteroresistance in an Enterobacter cloacae complex isolate, we observed that glucose availability greatly increased the frequency of the resistant subpopulation. Glucose downregulated the glycerol and fosfomycin importer GlpT, whose expression was heterogenous at the single cell level. This heterogeneous expression of GlpT, in combination with the expression of the fosfomycin resistance gene fosA , which acted as a resistance enhancer, led to the generation of heteroresistance. Correspondingly, the frequency of the fosfomycin resistant subpopulation was increased in murine models of hyperglycemia/diabetes. These data demonstrate how metabolic heterogeneity and carbon source availability can impact antibiotic resistance phenotypes in the infection environment.