Enhancing ecosystem service provision through the silvicultural management of European black pine stands from afforestation and reforestation

Afforestation and reforestation are integral components of the wider field of land management. When these initiatives integrate the diverse eco-biological, landscape, cultural, and socioeconomic characteristics of the intervention area they can achieve substantial environmental improvements also by improving ecosystem functions, commonly referred to as ecosystem services (ES). European black pines (Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arnold) and Corsican pine (Pinus laricio (Poir.) Maire) are some of Europe's most frequently used tree species for afforestation and reforestation, thanks to their ability to grow in poor soil conditions and their resistance to environmental stressors. In this study, we adopted a validated process-based modeling approach to explore the effects of thinning intensity and frequency on the provision of some ES from European black pine stands, which have been established through afforestation and reforestation. We found a net financial gain when basal area removal reaches 25% with a 25-year thinning interval, highlighting the higher financial efficiency of more intensive interventions. Non-provisioning ES (erosion protection, carbon sequestration, and aesthetic/recreational value) tend to decrease with increased basal area removal and benefit from longer intervals between thinning. Remarkably, the economic values of aesthetic appeal and carbon sequestration far exceed those of timber production and erosion protection, regardless of thinning regime. Based on our results, we claim that strategic, long-term planning of thinning operations is essential to ensure a balanced trade-off between wood production and other ES while maintaining the cost-effectiveness of operations. Ultimately, our approach can provide guidelines for forest managers to ensure the provision of multiple ES.