Family life and cadmium ingestion independently shape offspring microbiomes in a subsocial insect

Symbiotic microbes are essential for host health and fitness. In family-living species, these microbes are often acquired through vertical transmission from parents and horizontal transmission from siblings. However, it is unclear how environmental stressors, such as chemical pollution, influence these contributions to the juvenile microbiome. Here, we tested the independent and interactive effects of social environment and cadmium ingestion - a highly toxic and common heavy metal pollutant - on the microbiome of juvenile European earwigs. We reared 900 juveniles either alone, with siblings or with siblings plus the mother. We exposed them to cadmium-enriched food at 0, 25 or 100mg.L ^-1 , and analysed their microbiome composition and diversity at the end of the family life period. Our results showed that both social environment and cadmium exposure shaped the juvenile microbial community composition (phylogenetic beta-diversity), with no evidence of an interaction between these factors. In contrast, the microbial local richness (alpha-diversity) remained unaffected by either factor or their interaction. Notably, several specific bacterial taxa, including putatively pathogenic ( Serratia ) and mutualistic ( Lactobacillus ) symbionts, were more abundant in juveniles reared with family members than in those reared in isolation, reflecting classical patterns observed  in social species. Overall, our findings suggest that while both social environment and cadmium shape the microbiome of earwig juveniles, family life neither amplifies nor mitigates the effects of chemical exposure. This highlights the robustness of microbial sharing within families, even under strong environmental stress.