The effect of population size on adaptation to fluctuating temperatures

Climate change exposes populations to more frequent periods of extreme temperatures and faster temperature fluctuations. Theoretical models suggest that different types of adaptations should occur in constant versus fluctuating environments of varying frequency. Furthermore, evolutionary adaptation to one environment may weaken the adaptations to alternative environments due to antagonistically pleiotropic alleles. However, fitness trade-offs are rarely observed in experiments and it has been hypothesized that the number and severity of trade-offs evolving in fluctuating environments might depend on population size. To evaluate whether specific types of adaptations evolve at fluctuating temperatures and how population size affects the evolution of trade-offs, we performed an evolution experiment with fission yeast ( Schizosaccharomyces pombe ). The small and large populations evolved for 500 generations at constant and fluctuating temperatures, after which the evolved strains competed against ancestral strains in respective selection environments and in alternative environments to detect trade-offs. We observed significant adaptation and maladaptation only to constant heat, but not to fluctuating temperatures. Overall, the population size did not have significant effects on adaptation capacity or trade-offs in alternative environments. Our results suggest that constant extreme temperatures may act as stronger selective pressures than temperature variation and that trade-offs are unlikely to constrain adaptation to fluctuating temperatures.