Predictive influences on memory encoding: investigating oscillations and the N400 event-related potential component

To effectively function in an ever-changing environment, the brain is proposed to make predictions about upcoming information. However, the association between prediction and memory formation and the role of between-subject neural variability in this relationship is unclear. To shed light on the relationship between prediction and memory, the present study reanalysed data from Jano and colleagues (2023). In the original experiment, participants were exposed to naturalistic images in predictable and unpredictable four-item sequences, after which their memory was tested using an old/new paradigm. In the present analysis ( N = 46), N400 amplitude and oscillatory power during learning was measured to gauge processes related to prediction error and memory encoding, respectively. This activity was compared with subsequent memory outcomes and individual alpha frequency (IAF) calculated at rest. Linear mixed-effects regressions revealed an alpha power subsequent memory effect that was not related to the amplitude of the N400, suggesting that memory encoding may occur independently of the level of prediction error. Notably, IAF influenced the relationship between theta power, N400 amplitude and subsequent memory, implying that the electrophysiological conditions for successful memory formation differ between individuals. Consequently, the extent to which prediction errors (presumably captured via the N400) drive memory encoding could depend on inter-individual variability in intrinsic neural activity. These findings emphasise the flexible nature of memory, whilst having potential implications for prediction error-driven accounts of learning.