Synapse-like Specializations at Dopamine Release Sites Orchestrate Efficient and Precise Neuromodulatory Signaling

Neuromodulators are generally understood to act through expansive projections that broadcast signals relatively indiscriminately, in stark contrast to the precise, synapse-bound organization of fast neurotransmitters like glutamate and GABA. This dichotomy has left the local architecture of neuromodulatory release and receptor engagement largely obscure. Here, using dopamine as a model system, we reveal that neuromodulatory signaling can be guided by precise molecular specificity. We show that dopamine axons exhibit a fundamental tropism for neurons expressing D1 or D2 receptors in the striatum and amygdala, a targeting principle that is conserved in dissociated co-cultures. Importantly, single-bouton-resolved optical imaging of release shows that dopamine is not broadcast broadly but is highly localized to varicosities that form direct, synapse-like appositions with receptor-expressing somata and dendrites. In contrast, varicosities lacking such appositions, or contacting receptor-negative neurons, are largely quiescent, indicating that local interactions with receptor-expressing targets help specify dopamine release competence.

To directly visualize receptor organization relative to release sites at endogenous expression levels, we generated ALFA-tag knock-in mice (ALFADoR mice) in which the N-termini of D1 and D2 dopamine receptors are epitope-tagged. Combining these mice with immunolabeling and expansion microscopy in dissociated culture and intact tissue, we show that both D1 and D2 receptors are organized into discrete puncta rather than diffuse membrane distributions. Across major terminal fields of midbrain dopamine neurons, including striatum, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, these receptor nanoclusters are preferentially positioned near dopamine varicosities at distances far smaller than expected from spatial shuffling controls.

Moreover, receptor clusters apposed to dopamine varicosities were observed to be larger than non-apposed clusters, consistent with specialized receptor microdomains that may enhance signaling efficacy.

Together, our data demonstrate that dopaminergic signaling is spatially organized by receptor-specific targeting and subcellular microdomain specialization. This structured framework challenges the canonical dichotomy between precise fast transmission and diffuse neuromodulation. It reveals that principles of synaptic organization extend to and define a previously hidden layer of specificity in neuromodulatory systems, opening new frontiers in understanding cell-type specific neuromodulation, axon guidance, and subcellular GPCR organization.