Are human super-predators always super-scary? A meta-analysis of wild animal behavioural responses to human interactions

Humans interact with wild animals through lethal activities (e.g., hunting, fishing) as well as non-lethal activities (e.g., tourism, recreation). While it is known that these different interactions alter animal behaviour, their relative impacts are not well understood. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the past 30 years of research, focusing on changes in foraging, vigilance, and movement behaviours in wild animals. Our results show that lethal human activities cause significant behavioural changes, with targeted species increasing vigilance and reducing foraging in affected areas. Active non-lethal activities elicited similar but generally weaker patterns, with many species showing little to no change in the magnitude of behavioural response. In contrast, passive non-lethal interactions, like those involving roads and development, produced highly variable responses depending on the species. These findings illustrate the importance of differentiating between types of human activity when considering their effects on wildlife. Notably, the most pronounced behavioural changes occurred where humans posed a direct lethal threat. Gaps in the literature, such as uneven data within and across species, and limited information on the history or context of human interactions currently limit our ability to better predict when and why animals change their behaviour in response to humans.