PixelPrint ^4D : A 3D printing method of fabricating patient-specific deformable CT phantoms for respiratory motion applications

All in-vivo medical imaging is impacted by patient motion, especially respiratory motion, which has a significant influence on clinical workflows in diagnostic imaging and radiation therapy. Many technologies such as motion artifact reduction and tumor tracking algorithms have been developed to compensate for respiratory motion during imaging. To assess these technologies, respiratory motion phantoms (RMPs) are required as preclinical testing environments, for instance, in computed tomography (CT). However, current RMPs are highly simplified and do not exhibit realistic tissue structures or deformation patterns. With the rise of more complex motion compensation technologies such as deep learning-based algorithms, there is a need for more realistic RMPs. This work introduces PixelPrint ^4D , a 3D printing method designed to fabricate lifelike, patient-specific deformable lung phantoms for CT imaging. The phantom demonstrated accurate replication of patient lung structures, textures, and attenuation profiles. Furthermore, it exhibited accurate nonrigid deformations, volume changes, and attenuation changes under compression. PixelPrint ^4D enables the production of highly realistic RMPs, surpassing existing models to offer more robust testing environments for a diverse array of novel CT technologies.