Computational simulations of Pachycrocuta bite damage based on a ∼1.2 Ma ravaged hippopotamus femur from Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Granada, Spain)

Understanding the behaviour and interactions of extinct carnivoran species present a significant challenge in archaeological and palaeontological research, often limited by numerous constraints in the fossil record. Here we analyse a hippopotamus femur consumed by an extinct species of giant hyena, recovered from the open-air site Fuente Nueva 3 (∼1.2 Ma, Orce, Granada, Spain). Leveraging the use of advanced microscopic techniques to digitise the tooth marks observed on this specimen in three dimensions, the present study utilises artificially intelligent algorithms to then simulate the possible morphological variability of this carnivoran. This allows us to characterise Pachycrocuta brevirostris tooth pit morphology, so as to construct a diagnostic reference sample of this species. Our findings underscore the importance tooth mark size has on identifying the activity of Pachycrocuta , revealing the giant hyena to have produced remarkably large, deep, and circular tooth pits on dense cortical bone.