Microbiota-derived inosine programs protective CD8 ⁺ T cell responses against influenza in newborns

The immunological defects causing susceptibility to severe viral respiratory infections due to early-life dysbiosis remain ill-defined. Here, we show that influenza virus susceptibility in dysbiotic infant mice is caused by CD8 ⁺ T cell hyporesponsiveness and diminished persistence as tissue-resident memory cells. We describe a previously unknown role for nuclear factor interleukin 3 (NFIL3) in repression of memory differentiation of CD8 ⁺ T cells in dysbiotic mice involving epigenetic regulation of T cell factor 1 (TCF 1) expression. Pulmonary CD8 ⁺ T cells from dysbiotic human infants share these transcriptional signatures and functional phenotypes. Mechanistically, intestinal inosine was reduced in dysbiotic human infants and newborn mice, and inosine replacement reversed epigenetic dysregulation of Tcf7 and increased memory differentiation and responsiveness of pulmonary CD8 ⁺ T cells. Our data unveils new developmental layers controlling immune cell activation and identifies microbial metabolites that may be used therapeutically in the future to protect at-risk newborns.