Pseudogenes as a neutral reference for detecting selection in prokaryotic pangenomes

A long-standing question is to what degree genetic drift and selection drive the divergence in rare accessory gene content between closely related bacteria. Rare genes, including singletons, make up a large proportion of pangenomes (the set of all genes in a set of genomes), but it remains unclear how many such genes are adaptive, deleterious, or neutral to their host genome. Estimates of species’ effective population sizes (N _e ) are positively associated with pangenome size and fluidity, which has independently been interpreted as evidence for both neutral and adaptive pangenome models. We hypothesised that pseudogenes, used as a neutral reference, could be used to distinguish these models. We find that most functional categories are depleted for rare pseudogenes when a genome encodes only a single intact copy of a gene family. In contrast, transposons are enriched in pseudogenes, suggesting they are mostly neutral or deleterious to the host genome. Thus, even if individual rare accessory genes vary in their effects on host fitness, we can confidently reject a model of entirely neutral or deleterious rare genes. We also define the ratio of singleton intact genes to singleton pseudogenes (s _i /s _p ) within a pangenome, compare this measure across 668 prokaryotic species, and detect a signal consistent with the adaptive value of many rare accessory genes. Taken together, our work demonstrates that comparing to pseudogenes can improve inferences of the evolutionary forces driving pangenome variation.