Effects of NMDA antagonists on social behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies

Social withdrawal is a key component of the negative symptom domain of schizophrenia, and pharmacological blockade of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) is widely used to model schizophrenia-relevant phenotypes in animals. However, findings on social behaviour are inconsistent across paradigms and laboratories. We therefore conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to synthesise the effects of dizocilpine, ketamine, and phencyclidine on social interaction and social preference, to evaluate whether clinically approved antipsychotics modify these outcomes, and to examine locomotor activity measured within the same social tests to aid interpretation. We searched Embase, PubMed and Web of Science without language or date restrictions. Controlled in vivo studies in laboratory animals administering an eligible NMDAR antagonist and reporting social interaction and/or social preference outcomes were included. Two reviewers independently screened records, extracted data and assessed risk of bias. Effect sizes were computed as standardised mean differences and synthesised using correlated multilevel random-effects models with cluster-robust variance estimation. In total, 264 studies met the inclusion criteria. Overall, NMDAR antagonists were associated with reduced social interaction and reduced social preference relative to controls, although the social preference literature appeared vulnerable to small-study effects and imprecision. Locomotor activity measured during social interaction tests tended to be higher following NMDAR antagonists, whereas during social preference no consistent overall change was observed. In animals exposed to NMDAR antagonists, antipsychotics increased social behaviour, but these changes commonly co-occurred with reduced locomotion during social interaction tests, suggesting that improvements in social measures may partly reflect altered behavioural competition and time allocation rather than selective restoration of social functioning. Taken together, the evidence supports an overall link between NMDAR antagonism and reduced social behaviour, but the strength and interpretability of this signal depend on the paradigm and are constrained by heterogeneity and limitations in reporting.