From flexible to anticipatory processing: alpha and beta oscillatory signatures of feedback-guided strategy adaptation and memory updating

When humans learn under conditions of uncertainty, they dynamically adjust how they prepare for and respond to feedback. In navigating uncertain environments, the brain minimizes error by continuously refining internal models via memory updating (MU). Feedback is critical for MU, and anticipatory neural mechanisms shape how feedback is processed, likely reflecting learned environmental certainty. However, the literature has largely focused on post-feedback activity, leaving pre-feedback certainty-related mechanisms less understood. The present study aims to address this gap by examining how certainty modulates anticipatory states, preceding feedback and subsequent MU. We examined oscillatory activity prior to performance feedback in a reanalysis of EEG data previously published by Hassall and colleagues (2023). Twenty-one participants (16 female, M _age = 25.81 years) predicted the strength of cartoon characters with varying predictability levels which were learned through exposure. Feedback on prediction accuracy was presented via an animated rising bar. Results revealed that theta power is modulated by accumulative feedback. Linear mixed-effects models revealed an interaction between predictability-related certainty and learning stage: in late learning, higher performance was associated with increased pre-feedback alpha and beta power for low-certainty trials, whereas in early learning, higher performance was associated with decreased beta power. These learning-related modulations in alpha and beta power suggest that initial learning is marked by adaptable exploratory processing. Subsequent learning exhibited increased alpha-mediated inhibition and beta-related anticipatory activity for lower certainty trials, indicative of dynamic strategy refinement and selective engagement of task-relevant information. These results demonstrate that certainty shapes preparatory oscillatory activity associated with MU.