Railway Catenary Sparking as a Source of Toxic Copper Ultrafine Particles: Evidence from Realistic In Vitro Inhalation Exposure

Railway catenary sparking generates airborne ultrafine particles (UFPs) that may pose health risks due to their metallic composition and ability to penetrate deep into the alveolar region of the lungs. Copper, widely used in wires and pantographs, is a major component of these emissions, making copper-rich particles common in railway environments such as subways. However, exposure levels and health impacts remain poorly characterized, and localized hotspots may represent an underrecognized risk in densely populated areas. This study investigated the toxicity of copper UFPs under realistic dosimetry and deposition conditions. Copper UFPs were generated using a spark discharge generator and applied to two in vitro lung models: a 3D co-culture of Calu-3 epithelial cells, THP-1-derived macrophages, and EA.hy926 endothelial cells, and a monoculture of A549 alveolar epithelial cells. Cells were exposed at the air–liquid interface (ALI) using an automated platform to mimic inhalation exposure and UFPs deposition. Copper deposition ranged from 6.5 to 41 ng/cm ² , within occupationally relevant levels. A549 cells showed cytotoxic responses consistent with previous studies, whereas the 3D co-culture model revealed broader adverse effects, including inflammation, impaired epithelial barrier integrity, oxidative stress, and early DNA damage. Inflammatory activation also differed between models: A549 cells mainly exhibited transcriptional responses, while the 3D model showed significant secretion of IL-6 and IL-8, associated with interferon signaling. These findings highlight the potential health risks of copper UFPs from railway systems and emphasize the need for improved characterization of UFP exposure in environmental and occupational railway settings.